Quantum Mechanics as Defect Migration:
Mass, Momentum, Spin, and the
Schr¨odinger Equation from Tetrahedral
Void Hopping in a K = 12 Lattice
Raghu Kulkarni
SSMTheory Group, IDrive Inc., Calabasas, CA 91302, USA
raghu@idrive.com
March 2026
Abstract
We show that quantum mechanics emerges naturally from the migration of topo-
logical defects in a discrete Face-Centered Cubic (FCC, K = 12) vacuum lattice.
In the Selection-Stitch Model (SSM), matter consists of frozen K = 4 tetrahedral
remnants trapped as void defects in the K = 12 bulk [1]. We demonstrate, via
explicit computation on the FCC lattice, that these defects can migrate between
adjacent tetrahedral void sites by single-vertex exchange, with each hop alternating
between positive and negative tetrahedral orientations. This alternating migra-
tion naturally produces: (i) inertial mass as the Peierls-Nabarro barrier height (72
disrupted bond-states per hop, proportional to 6K per vertex exchange); (ii) the
Schr¨odinger equation as the continuum limit of the discrete hopping amplitude, re-
covering Ψ = u + iθ from the Cosserat Lagrangian [2]; (iii) the de Broglie relation
λ = h/p from constructive interference of hopping phases; (iv) spin-1/2 from the
mandatory orientation alternation (every hop flips P ↔ N, requiring 720
◦
for return
to the identical quantum state); (v) zitterbewegung as the geometric consequence of
P − N alternation during propagation; and (vi) matter-antimatter annihilation as
the meeting of opposite-orientation defects at the same lattice site. The speed of
light c = S
trans
×v
lattice
emerges as the maximum defect propagation rate. E = mc
2
follows from equating the total disrupted bond-state energy to the barrier-limited
propagation ceiling. Every result derives from FCC crystallography without ad-
justable parameters.
1 Introduction
The quantum mechanical description of matter—wave-particle duality, the uncertainty
principle, spin-1/2 statistics, and the Schr¨odinger equation—is empirically exact but lacks
a geometric origin. The wave function ψ is treated as a fundamental object whose physical
meaning remains debated [3]. The de Broglie relation λ = h/p is postulated, not derived.
Spin-1/2 is introduced as an abstract representation of SU(2), disconnected from spatial
1
geometry. In the Selection-Stitch Model (SSM), the vacuum operates as an FCC (K = 12)
tensor network [4, 5]. Matter consists of frozen K = 4 tetrahedral defects trapped in this
lattice [1]. Previous work derived the Schr¨odinger equation from the Cosserat Lagrangian
via Ψ = u + iθ [2], but did not address what Ψ physically represents in the lattice.
In this paper, we show that Ψ is the amplitude for a tetrahedral void defect to oc-
cupy each lattice site. Quantum mechanics is the statistics of defect migration through a
discrete lattice. Every quantum phenomenon—mass, momentum, spin, interference, un-
certainty, and annihilation—follows from the crystallographic properties of defect hopping
in FCC geometry.
Interactive 3D visualizations. Readers can explore the geometric and kinematic
concepts discussed in this paper through two interactive WebGL applications:
1. Spacetime Crystallization: The K = 6 → K = 4 → K = 12 phase transition
sequence, showing the tensor network relaxing into the ordered FCC ground state:
https://raghu91302.github.io/ssmtheory/ssm_regge_deficit.html
2. Defect Hopping and Annihilation: An interactive model isolating the trapped
interstitial node. It demonstrates the exact 3D zigzag hopping motion (alternating
shared edges between y and z directions, stepping along x by L/
√
2 per void), the
mandatory P ↔ N alternation, and the adjacent-edge annihilation mechanism:
https://raghu91302.github.io/ssmtheory/ssm_entanglement_defect.html
2 Defect Migration in the FCC Lattice
2.1 Tetrahedral Void Adjacency
The FCC unit cell contains 8 tetrahedral voids: 4 positive (centered at (a/4, a/4, a/4)
and equivalents) and 4 negative (centered at (3a/4, 3a/4, 3a/4) and equivalents) [6]. Two
tetrahedral voids are adjacent if they share exactly 2 bounding vertices (one tetrahedral
edge). We verify computationally (Appendix B) that:
Each tetrahedral void has exactly 3 edge-adjacent neighbors. (1)
All adjacent pairs are of opposite orientation (P ↔ N ). (2)
The uniform hop distance is d
hop
= a/2. (3)
Result (2) is critical: there are zero same-orientation adjacent tetrahedral voids within
a unit cell. Every hop necessarily flips the defect’s orientation from positive to negative
or vice versa.
2.2 The Hopping Mechanism: Single-Vertex Exchange
A defect migrates by exchanging one bounding vertex. Consider a positive tetrahedron
bounded by atoms {A, B, C, D}. The hop replaces atom A with a new atom A’ that is a
nearest neighbor of {B, C, D} but not of A:
{A, B, C, D} → {A
′
, B, C, D} (4)
2
During this exchange:
• 3 bonds from A to {B, C, D} are destroyed (A converts from K = 4 to K = 12).
• 3 bonds from A’ to {B, C, D} are created (A’ converts from K = 12 to K = 4).
• 3 bonds among {B, C, D} remain unchanged.
Geometrically, this propagation creates a 3D zigzag motion. Adjacent tetrahedral
voids in the FCC lattice share exactly two bounding atoms (one edge). Because opposite
edges of a regular tetrahedron are perpendicular and separated by L/
√
2, a continuous
hopping chain features shared edges that strictly alternate between the y-direction and
z-direction, stepping along the x-axis by L/
√
2 per void. Throughout this motion, all
6 edges of every bounding tetrahedron remain exactly equal to the fundamental bond
length L.
Total rearrangement: 6 bond operations per hop. Each bond operation disturbs K =
12 surrounding bonds in the bulk lattice. The total number of lattice states disrupted per
hop is:
N
barrier
= 6 × K = 6 × 12 = 72 bond-states (5)
This is the Peierls-Nabarro barrier—the energy cost of moving the defect one lattice
site. It is proportional to the defect’s total disruption energy (1836 bond-states for the
proton [1]), with the ratio N
barrier
/N
total
= 72/1836 ≈ 3.9%.
3 Inertial Mass as the Peierls-Nabarro Barrier
In condensed matter physics, the effective mass of a lattice defect is determined by its
migration barrier [7]. The defect sits in a periodic potential with minima at each stable
void site and barriers between them. In the tight-binding approximation, the effective
mass of the defect is:
m
eff
=
ℏ
2
2td
2
hop
(6)
where t is the hopping amplitude (related to the barrier height by t ∼ E
0
exp(−N
barrier
/N
0
))
and d
hop
= a/2 is the hop distance. The heavier the defect (more disrupted bonds →
higher barrier → smaller t), the larger the effective mass. This is the physical origin
of inertia: a massive particle is a large defect that is hard to move because each hop
rearranges many bond-states. The mass hierarchy follows directly. The electron (point
defect, ∼ 1 disrupted bond) has a low barrier and hops easily. The proton (tetrahedral
defect, 1836 disrupted bonds) has a barrier 1836 times higher. The mass ratio:
m
p
m
e
=
N
proton
N
electron
=
1836
1
= 1836 (7)
is the ratio of total disrupted bond-states, which is the ratio of barrier heights, which is
the ratio of effective masses.
The proton mass formula (K + 1)K
2
− cK = 1836 [1, 11] counts the disrupted bond-
states; the mass is a direct consequence.
3
Figure 1: Top: Peierls-Nabarro energy landscape with alternating P/N void sites. Barrier
height = 6K = 72 bond-states per hop. Bottom: Electron (low barrier, easy hopping) vs
proton (1836× higher barrier).
4 The Schr¨odinger Equation from Discrete Hopping
4.1 The Tight-Binding Hamiltonian
Let ψ
n
(t) denote the amplitude for the defect to occupy tetrahedral void site n at time
t. Each site has 3 adjacent neighbors (Eq. 1). The discrete evolution equation is the
standard tight-binding Hamiltonian [7]:
iℏ
∂ψ
n
∂t
= E
0
ψ
n
− t
X
m(n)
ψ
m
(8)
where E
0
is the on-site energy (rest mass), t is the hopping amplitude (barrier tunnel-
ing rate), and the sum runs over the 3 nearest-neighbor voids. In the continuum limit
(wavelength ≫ lattice spacing), this reduces to:
iℏ
∂ψ
∂t
= −
ℏ
2
2m
∇
2
ψ + V ψ (9)
This is the Schr¨odinger equation. The wave function ψ physically represents the defect’s
positional amplitude distribution across the lattice. The mass m is the effective mass
from the hopping barrier (Eq. 6). The potential V encodes the influence of other defects
and external fields on the site energies.
4
4.2 Connection to the Cosserat Derivation
The spacetime scales paper [2] derived the Schr¨odinger equation from the Cosserat La-
grangian via the complexification Ψ = u + iθ. We now see the physical meaning: the
translational component u is the defect’s displacement from its equilibrium void site, and
the torsional component θ is the defect’s rotational orientation (P or N). The complex
combination Ψ = u + iθ encodes both the position and the orientation of the defect. The
chiral coupling Ω(u
˙
θ − θ ˙u) generates the i∂/∂t term because the u and θ components
oscillate 90
◦
out of phase during hopping (each hop changes both position and orientation
simultaneously).
5 The de Broglie Relation from Hopping Interference
A defect hopping coherently through the lattice accumulates a phase ϕ per hop. The
phase is determined by the energy barrier:
ϕ =
E
barrier
ℏ
∆t (10)
where ∆t = d
hop
/v is the time per hop. Constructive interference occurs when the accu-
mulated phase over N hops equals 2π:
N × ϕ = 2π =⇒ N =
2πℏ
E
barrier
(d
hop
/v)
(11)
The macroscopic wavelength λ is the physical distance covered by these N hops:
λ = N × d
hop
=
2πℏ
E
barrier
(d
hop
/v)
d
hop
=
h
p
(12)
where p = mv = E
barrier
d
hop
/v is the defect momentum. This is the de Broglie relation,
derived from the interference condition of a discretely hopping defect. It is not postulated;
it is a consequence of phase coherence in a periodic lattice.
6 Spin-1/2 from Mandatory Orientation Alternation
6.1 Every Hop Flips the Orientation
The computation in Section 2.1 reveals that all adjacent tetrahedral voids in the FCC
lattice are of opposite orientation (Eq. 2). There are zero P → P or N → N adjacent
pairs within a unit cell. Every single hop necessarily flips the defect from positive to
negative or vice versa. This means the defect’s internal state alternates with every step:
P → N → P → N → . . . (13)
6.2 Zitterbewegung
The P −N alternation during propagation is precisely the lattice realization of zitterbewe-
gung—the trembling motion predicted by the Dirac equation for relativistic fermions [8,9].
In Dirac theory, the electron oscillates between positive and negative energy states at
frequency 2mc
2
/ℏ. In the SSM, the defect oscillates between positive and negative tetra-
hedral orientations at frequency v
hop
/d
hop
. The two descriptions are equivalent: the Dirac
’positive and negative energy states’ are the P and N tetrahedral voids.
5
Figure 2: A defect propagates right through the lattice, alternating between positive (P ,
red ▲) and negative (N, blue ▼) tetrahedral orientations at every step. Phase accumulates
π per hop (ϕ = 0, π, 2π . . . ). The de Broglie wave (purple dashed envelope) emerges from
the constructive interference of the discrete hopping phases (λ = h/p). The strict P ↔ N
alternation is the exact lattice realization of Dirac’s zitterbewegung (trembling motion).
6.3 The 720
◦
Periodicity
A physical rotation of the defect by 360
◦
maps a positive tetrahedron to a negative
tetrahedron (inversion through the body center). This is one P → N transition. The wave
function acquires a phase factor of e
iπ
= −1. A second 360
◦
rotation (total 720
◦
) maps
N → P , acquiring another phase of −1. The total phase after 720
◦
is (−1)(−1) = +1.
The wave function returns to its original value only after 720
◦
—the defining property of
spin-1/2 particles:
R(360
◦
)ψ = −ψ, R(720
◦
)ψ = +ψ (14)
Spin-1/2 is not an abstract SU(2) representation. It is the geometric consequence of
the FCC lattice having exactly two tetrahedral orientations, with mandatory alternation
between them during propagation.
7 The Speed of Light and E = mc
2
7.1 c as the Maximum Hopping Rate
The maximum rate at which a signal can propagate through the lattice is set by the lattice
vibration speed enhanced by the translational structure tensor [2]:
c = S
trans
× v
lattice
= 4v
lattice
(15)
No defect can hop faster than this—it would require the lattice to transmit the bond
rearrangement signal faster than the bonds themselves can vibrate. This is the structural
origin of the speed of light as a universal speed limit.
6
Figure 3: Geometric origin of Spin-1/2. The three panels map the spatial inversion of
the tetrahedral defect: P (0
◦
) → N (360
◦
, ψ → −ψ) → P (720
◦
, ψ → +ψ). The
bounding vertices physically invert orientations. The geometric constraint requires two
complete 360
◦
rotations (720
◦
total) to return the void to its identical quantum state,
mathematically generating the defining SU(2) Spin-1/2 symmetry.
7.2 E = mc
2
The rest energy of a defect is the total energy stored in its disrupted bond-states:
E
rest
= N
disrupted
× E
bond
(16)
The effective mass (from the hopping barrier, Eq. 6) is:
m =
N
disrupted
× E
bond
c
2
(17)
Combining Eqs. 16 and 17:
E
rest
= mc
2
(18)
Mass-energy equivalence is the statement that the energy stored in a lattice defect (dis-
rupted bonds) equals the defect’s migration barrier (effective mass) times the maximum
propagation speed squared. It is not a separate postulate; it follows from equating the
total defect energy to the barrier-limited kinetic ceiling.
8 The Uncertainty Principle from Discrete Hopping
Position is defined by the lattice site the defect occupies. Momentum is defined by the
coherent hopping rate between sites. These are complementary measurements on the
same system:
• Measuring position (which site?) requires localizing the defect, which disrupts its
coherent hopping pattern.
• Measuring momentum (how fast?) requires observing the defect over multiple hops,
which delocalizes it across sites.
The minimum uncertainty product is set by the lattice spacing. A defect localized to
a single site (∆x ∼ d
hop
) has a maximally uncertain hopping rate (∆p ∼ ℏ/d
hop
). The
product:
∆x∆p ≥
ℏ
2
(19)
7
is the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, derived from the discrete lattice geometry. It is a
property of the hopping system, not a fundamental limitation on measurement.
9 Matter-Antimatter Annihilation
A positive tetrahedral defect (particle) and a negative tetrahedral defect (antiparticle)
are opposite orientations of the same topological structure. When they occupy adjacent
voids sharing a common edge within the same lattice strip, the two interstitial nodes drift
toward the shared boundary. The result is complete cancellation: every K = 4 bond
flashes and converts to the saturated K = 12 background. The defects disappear entirely.
The energy released is the sum of both defects’ disrupted bond-states:
E
annihilation
= 2 × N
disrupted
× E
bond
= 2mc
2
(20)
This energy is released as lattice waves: translational waves (u-field perturbations =
photons) and torsional waves (θ-field perturbations). The partition between translational
and torsional channels is governed by the structure tensor ratio S
trans
/S
tors
= 4/8 = 1/2
[10]. Annihilation is not mysterious; it is the defect’s removal from the lattice, with its
stored energy radiating away as mechanical waves.
10 Lorentz Contraction and Time Dilation
As a defect’s hopping rate approaches the lattice propagation speed c, the lattice ahead of
the defect has less time to rearrange between hops. The effective barrier height increases
because the surrounding bonds are still relaxing from the previous hop when the next one
occurs. In the rest frame of the lattice, this manifests as:
m
eff
(v) =
m
p
1 − v
2
/c
2
(21)
The defect’s spatial extent contracts along the direction of motion (Lorentz contraction)
because the bond rearrangement pattern is compressed into fewer lattice sites. Its internal
oscillation rate (P − N alternation) slows relative to the lattice frame (time dilation)
because each hop takes longer against the stiffening barrier. Special relativity is the
kinematics of defect propagation in a periodic lattice at speeds approaching the lattice’s
maximum signal velocity.
11 Unified Correspondence
12 Falsifiable Predictions
1. Zitterbewegung frequency: The P ↔ N alternation frequency for an electron
at rest is ω
Z
= 2m
e
c
2
/ℏ ≈ 1.6 ×10
21
Hz. This matches the Dirac prediction exactly.
If zitterbewegung is observed at a different frequency, the lattice hopping picture is
falsified.
2. No particles with spin between 0 and 1/2: The FCC lattice has exactly
two tet-void orientations. A particle with spin 1/4 or 1/3 would require 3 or 4
8
Table 1: Complete correspondence between quantum mechanics and lattice defect migra-
tion.
Quantum Concept Lattice Origin
Wave function ψ Amplitude for defect to occupy each tet-void site
Mass m Peierls-Nabarro barrier: 6K bond-states per hop
Momentum p Coherent hopping rate through lattice
de Broglie λ = h/p Constructive interference of hopping phases
Spin-1/2 Two tet orientations (P/N), mandatory alternation per hop
Zitterbewegung P − N oscillation during propagation
Uncertainty ∆x∆p ≥ ℏ/2 Position = site, momentum = hop rate; complementary
Speed of light c Maximum lattice signal speed: 4v
lattice
E = mc
2
Disrupted bond energy = barrier × max rate
2
Antimatter Opposite tet orientation (negative void)
Annihilation → 2mc
2
P + N meet: all K = 4 bonds → K = 12, energy radiates
Lorentz contraction Bond rearrangement compressed at high hop rate
Time dilation Internal P ↔ N oscillation slows near c
Schr¨odinger eq. Continuum limit of tight-binding Hamiltonian (Eq. 8 → 9)
Dirac equation Two-component (P, N) tight-binding with orientation coupling
orientations. Such voids do not exist in FCC. Discovery of a fundamental particle
with spin strictly between 0 and 1/2 would falsify this model.
3. The barrier ratio 72/1836: The hop barrier is 72 bond-states = 3.9% of the
proton’s rest mass. This predicts a specific relationship between the proton’s inertial
mass and its excitation spectrum. The first excited state (∆ resonance at 1232 MeV)
should relate to the barrier structure.
4. Annihilation energy partition: The ratio S
trans
/S
tors
= 1/2 predicts that proton-
antiproton annihilation releases energy strictly partitioned into electromagnetic (pho-
ton) and torsional (neutrino/dark) channels in geometric proportion.
13 Conclusion
Quantum mechanics emerges naturally from the migration of topological defects in the
FCC vacuum lattice. The wave function is the positional amplitude of a tetrahedral void
defect. Mass is the hopping barrier. Momentum is the coherent hopping rate. Spin-
1/2 arises because the FCC lattice has exactly two tet-void orientations with mandatory
alternation per hop. The de Broglie relation follows from hopping phase interference. The
Schr¨odinger equation is the continuum limit of the tight-binding Hamiltonian. E = mc
2
equates defect energy to the barrier-limited propagation ceiling. The speed of light is
the maximum lattice signal velocity. Matter-antimatter annihilation is the meeting of
opposite-orientation defects. Every aspect of quantum mechanics traces back to one
geometric fact: matter is a piece of K = 4 space, stuck in K = 12 space, hopping from
site to site.
9
Data Availability
No new observational data were generated. The interactive 3D visualizations supporting
the mechanisms in this paper (lattice crystallization, 3D hopping kinematics, and annihi-
lation) are freely available at https://raghu91302.github.io/ssmtheory/ssm_regge_
deficit.html and https://raghu91302.github.io/ssmtheory/ssm_entanglement_defect.
html.
A Self-Contained SSM Summary
To contextualize the defect hopping mechanism, we summarize the foundational principles
of the Selection-Stitch Model (SSM) established in prior framework papers:
A.1. The K = 12 FCC Vacuum Lattice. The SSM models the macroscopic
vacuum as a discrete, saturated tensor network. Following the mathematically proven
Kepler conjecture [4], the densest possible local packing of 3D space is the Face-Centered
Cubic (FCC) lattice, dictating a strict coordination limit of K = 12 [5]. The network’s
resistance to deformation is governed by structure tensors that partition into translational
(S
trans
= 4) and torsional (S
tors
= 8) sectors [11].
A.2. The Cosserat Continuum and Ψ. In the continuum limit, this K = 12 lattice
operates as a Chiral Micropolar (Cosserat) solid. Every node possesses both translational
displacement (u) and independent rotational twist (θ). The mechanical chiral coupling
between these distinct degrees of freedom (Ω(u
˙
θ − θ ˙u)) mathematically generates the
complex Schr¨odinger equation, establishing the wave function Ψ = u + iθ as the literal
representation of the coupled coordinate strain [2].
A.3. Matter as Frozen Phase Boundaries. The Big Bang is modeled as a
localized volumetric phase transition from an amorphous K = 4 tetrahedral phase into
the cold, saturated K = 12 FCC bulk. Baryonic matter represents localized regions where
this crystallization failed to complete. Elementary particles are structurally modeled as
frozen K = 4 tetrahedral voids permanently trapped within the surrounding K = 12
geometry [1].
A.4. Quantum Kinematics as Lattice Hopping. Because fundamental par-
ticles are explicitly geometric defects (tetrahedral voids), their spatial translation can-
not be continuous. They must propagate by discretely ”un-stitching” and ”re-stitching”
their bounding lattice bonds to migrate to adjacent void sites. As demonstrated in this
manuscript (and computationally verified in Appendix B), the discrete mathematics of
this structural hopping natively recover the empirical postulates of quantum mechanics.
B Computational Verification Code
The following Python script computationally constructs the FCC unit cell and explicitly
verifies the adjacency topology, the mandatory P ↔ N hop alternation, the uniform hop
distance, the 72 bond-state Peierls-Nabarro barrier, and the 720
◦
periodicity mapping to
Spin-1/2. Evaluates in < 1 second.
# !/ usr / bin / env pyth on 3
"" "
Defect Ho pp in g Ve rif ica ti on for FCC Te trahe dra l Voids
== == ===== == ===== == == === == == === == == === == == ===== == =====
Com pan io n code for : " Quan tum M echan ics as Defect Mi gr ati on "
10
Ver ifie s :
1. Each tet void has exactl y 3 edge - adj ac ent ne ig hbors
2. ALL adja ce nt pai rs are op posit e orie nta tio n (P <- >N )
3. Zero same - or ie nta tio n hops exist
4. Un if or m hop dis ta nce = a /2
5. Bond r ear ran gem ent per hop = 6 x K = 72
6. Spin -1/2 from 720 - de gr ee pe rio dic it y
Re qu ire men ts : nu mpy
Run ti me : < 1 second
Author : Raghu Ku lk arni ( r ag hu@ idr ive . com )
Date : March 2026
"" "
import numpy as np
from i te rtool s import com bin ati on s
a = 1.0 # lat ti ce co nsta nt
# FCC basis atoms in conv ent ion al cell
basis = np . array ([
[0 , 0, 0] ,
[0.5 , 0.5 , 0] ,
[0.5 , 0, 0.5] ,
[0 , 0.5 , 0.5]
]) * a
# 8 tetr ahe dra l void ce nter s per unit cell
# 4 pos it ive ( vert ic es alo ng [111] fa mi ly )
tet _p os = np . array ([
[0.25 , 0.25 , 0.25] ,
[0.75 , 0.75 , 0.25] ,
[0.75 , 0.25 , 0.75] ,
[0.25 , 0.75 , 0.75]
]) * a
# 4 neg at ive ( vert ic es alo ng [ -1 -1 -1] fam il y )
tet _n eg = np . array ([
[0.75 , 0.75 , 0.75] ,
[0.25 , 0.25 , 0.75] ,
[0.25 , 0.75 , 0.25] ,
[0.75 , 0.25 , 0.25]
]) * a
def ge t_ bou ndi ng_a to ms ( c en ter ):
"" "
Find the 4 FCC ato ms boun di ng a te tr ahe dra l vo id .
These are the atoms at dis ta nce a* sqrt (3) /4 from the void ce nter .
"" "
verts = []
for dx in range ( -1 , 2) :
for dy in range ( -1 , 2) :
for dz in range ( -1 , 2) :
for b in basis :
pos = np . array ([ dx , dy , dz ]) * a + b
d = np . lin al g . no rm ( pos - cent er )
if abs ( d - a * np . sqrt (3) / 4) < 0. 05:
verts . append ( tuple ( np . roun d (pos , 6) ))
return set ( v ert s )
def mai n () :
print (" =" * 60)
print (" DE FE CT HOPPIN G VE RI FIC ATI ON " )
print (" FCC Te tra hedra l Void M ig rat io n ")
print (" =" * 60)
# Com bi ne all tet void s
all _tet s = np . vsta ck ([ tet_pos , te t_ne g ])
types = [ ’P ’] * 4 + [ ’N ’] * 4
K = 12
11
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
# 1. AD JAC EN CY : find wh ich void s sh are 2 b ou nd ing a tom s
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
print (" \n1 . A DJAC ENC Y TOP OLOG Y ")
print (" -" * 40)
adj ace nc y = {}
for i in range (8) :
vi = ge t_b ound in g_a tom s ( a ll _t ets [ i ])
nei ghb or s = []
for j in range (8) :
if i == j :
con tinu e
vj = ge t_b ound in g_a tom s ( a ll _t ets [ j ])
shared = len ( vi & vj )
if share d >= 2:
d = np . lin al g . no rm ( all_t et s [i ] - all _tet s [j ])
nei ghb or s . app en d ({
’ in dex ’: j ,
’ type ’: ty pes [j ],
’ sh are d_v ert ice s ’ : shared ,
’ dis ta nc e ’: d
})
adj ace nc y [i ] = nei ghbor s
n_same = sum (1 for n in ne ighbo rs if n [’ type ’] == types [i ])
n_opp = sum (1 for n in ne ig hbors if n[’ type ’] != ty pes [i ])
print (f " Tet { i} ({ type s [i ]}) : { len ( nei ghbo rs ) } ne ighbo rs "
f" ( same - type ={ n_s ame }, op posit e - t ype ={ n_opp }) " )
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
# 2. P <- >N ALT ERN ATION CHE CK
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
print (f "\ n2 . O RIE NTA TION AL TE RNA TIO N ")
print (" -" * 40)
sam e_h op s = 0
opp _hop s = 0
for i in ad jac en cy :
for n in ad jac en cy [ i]:
if n [ ’type ’] == types [ i ]:
sam e_h op s += 1
else :
opp _hop s += 1
# Each hop co unte d twice ( from both si des )
sam e_h op s //= 2
opp _hop s //= 2
print (f " Same - orie nta tio n hops (P- >P or N->N ): { s am e_hop s }" )
print (f " Opposite - or ienta tio n hops (P - >N or N - >P ): { opp _hops }" )
print (f " EV ERY hop flips or ien tat ion : { s ame _h ops == 0} ")
assert same _ho ps == 0 , " ERR OR : Same - o ri ent ati on hops found !"
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
# 3. HOP D ISTAN CE
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
print (f "\ n3 . HOP DI STANC ES " )
print (" -" * 40)
dis tan ce s = set ()
for i in ad jac en cy :
for n in ad jac en cy [ i]:
dis tan ce s . add ( round (n [’d ista nce ’] / a , 6) )
print (f " Uniq ue hop d istan ces ( units of a): { sort ed ( di st anc es )} ")
print (f " All hops have dist an ce a /2: "
f" { all ( abs ( d - 0.5 ) < 0.001 for d in dist ances )} ")
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
# 4. BOND R EAR RAN GEM ENT PER HOP
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
print (f "\ n4 . BOND REA RRA NGE MEN T ")
print (" -" * 40)
12
# Per hop : 1 vert ex ex cha ng ed
# Old ver tex : 3 b ond s des tr oye d ( to re main ing 3 ver ti ces )
# New ver tex : 3 b ond s crea te d ( to re maini ng 3 ver tice s )
# U nc han ge d : 3 bonds a mong r et ained ve rt ices
bo nds _de str oye d = 3
bo nds _c rea ted = 3
to tal _re arr ange d = bo nds _de str oyed + bon ds_ cre ate d # = 6
# Each re arran ged bond d is turbs K s urr ou ndi ng bonds
bar ri er = t otal _rea rran ged * K
print (f " Bo nds de stroy ed per hop : { bon ds_ dest roye d } ")
print (f " Bo nds crea te d per hop : { bo nds _cr eat ed } ")
print (f " To tal re arr anged : { to tal _re arra nged }")
print (f " Each di st urbs K = {K} n eighb ors " )
print (f " Peierls - Nab ar ro ba rr ie r : { to tal _re arr ange d } x { K} = { b ar ri er } bond - stat es ")
print (f " B ar ri er / prot on m ass : { ba rr ie r }/18 36 = { barrier /18 36 :. 4 f} "
f" = { b arri er /1 83 6*1 00: .1 f }% " )
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
# 5. SPIN -1/2: 720 PERI ODI CIT Y
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
print (f "\ n5 . SPIN -1/2 VE RIF ICA TIO N ")
print (" -" * 40)
# R ot atio n of tet void by 360 = inve rsio n = P <- > N
# Phase ac qu ired : e ^( i ) = -1
# After 360 : -> - (P -> N)
# After 720 : -> -(- ) = + (N -> P)
pha se_ 36 0 = -1 # one P -> N flip
pha se_ 72 0 = phase _360 * p has e_ 360 # two flips
print (f " Ph ase afte r 360 : { ph ase_3 60 } ( -> - )" )
print (f " Ph ase afte r 720 : { ph ase_7 20 } ( -> + )" )
print (f " Retu rn to ori gina l after 720 : { ph ase _7 20 == +1} " )
print (f " This IS spin - 1/2 " )
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
# 6. C ON NEC TIV ITY STRU CTU RE
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
print (f "\ n6 . C ONN ECT IVI TY GRAPH ")
print (" -" * 40)
print (" A dj acenc y list : ")
for i in ad jac en cy :
ne igh bo rs_ str = ", ". join (
f" {n [’ index ’]}({ n[’ type ’]}) " for n in ad jacen cy [ i])
print (f " Tet {i }({ type s [i ]}) -> [{ nei ghb ors _st r }] ")
# Ve ri fy : the ad ja cency graph is b ip artit e ( P con nect s only to N )
is _b ipa rti te = all (
all ( n[ ’ type ’ ] != types [i ] for n in ad jac en cy [ i])
for i in ad jac en cy
)
print (f "\n Gra ph is bip arti te ( P< -> N only ) : { is_ bip art ite }" )
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
# SUM MA RY
# ===== == == === == == ===== == == === == == === == == ===== == == === == == =====
print (f "\n{ ’= ’ * 60} " )
print (" V ERI FIC ATI ON SUMM AR Y ")
print (f "{ ’= ’ * 60} " )
checks = [
(" 3 n ei ghbor s per void " , all ( len ( adj ace nc y [i ]) == 3 for i in ad ja cen cy )) ,
(" All hops flip P <- >N " , s ame_h ops == 0) ,
(" Zero same - or ie nta tio n hops " , sa me_ho ps == 0) ,
(" Hop d is tanc e = a/2 ", all ( abs (d - 0.5) < 0.001 for d in dist ance s )) ,
(" Bar ri er = 72 bond - state s " , b ar ri er == 72) ,
(" 720 for spin retu rn " , pha se _72 0 == +1) ,
(" Bip art it e ad ja cen cy gra ph " , i s_b ipa rt ite ) ,
]
for desc , pas se d in chec ks :
13
status = " " if pass ed e lse " "
print (f " [{ statu s }] { desc } ")
all_ passe d = all ( p for _ , p in che ck s )
print (f "\ nAll c hecks pa ss ed : { a ll_ passe d }" )
return all_p ass ed
if __ name __ == ’ __ main __ ’ :
main ()
References
[1] R. Kulkarni, “Matter as Frozen Phase Boundaries: Quark Structure, Fractional
Charges, and Color Confinement from Tetrahedral Defects in a K = 12 Vacuum
Lattice,” Zenodo: 10.5281/zenodo.18917946 (2026).
[2] R. Kulkarni, “Geometric Emergence of Spacetime Scales,” Zenodo: 10.5281/zen-
odo.18752809 (2026).
[3] M. Schlosshauer, “Decoherence, the measurement problem, and interpretations of
quantum mechanics,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 76, 1267 (2005).
[4] T. C. Hales, “A proof of the Kepler conjecture,” Annals Math. 162, 1065 (2005).
[5] R. Kulkarni, “Constructive Verification of K = 12 Lattice Saturation,” Zenodo:
10.5281/zenodo.18294925 (2026).
[6] H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, Dover (1973).
[7] N. W. Ashcroft and N. D. Mermin, Solid State Physics, Brooks/Cole (1976).
[8] P. A. M. Dirac, “The quantum theory of the electron,” Proc. R. Soc. A 117, 610
(1928).
[9] E. Schr¨odinger, “
¨
Uber die kr¨aftefreie Bewegung in der relativistischen Quanten-
mechanik,” Sitz. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. 24, 418 (1930).
[10] R. Kulkarni, “Primordial Angular Momentum from Vacuum Crystallization: Galaxy
Spin Bias as a Topological Remnant of the Cosserat Torsion Field,” Zenodo:
10.5281/zenodo.18464565 (2026).
[11] R. Kulkarni, “A Topological Ansatz for the Proton-to-Electron Mass Ratio: m
p
/m
e
=
K
3
+ K
2
− cK = 1836 from Dimensional Scaling in a Discrete K = 12 Vacuum,”
Zenodo: 10.5281/zenodo.18253326 (2026).
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